Peer-reviewed

References

Academic references supporting The Damaged Skin Barrier, organised by chapter.

This page brings together the research behind the book’s explanations of barrier damage, repair, irritation, inflammation, pH, lipids, skin biology and more.

Organised by Chapter

Chapter 1

Blank, I.H. (1952).
Factors which influence the water content of the stratum corneum.
Journal of Investigative Dermatology, 18(6), pp. 433–440.
https://doi.org/10.1038/jid.1952.52

Bouwstra, J.A. and Ponec, M. (2006).
The skin barrier in healthy and diseased state.
Biochimica et Biophysica Acta – Biomembranes, 1758(12), pp. 2080–2095.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbamem.2006.06.021

Cork, M.J., Danby, S.G., Vasilopoulos, Y., et al. (2009).
Epidermal barrier dysfunction in atopic dermatitis.
Journal of Investigative Dermatology, 129(8), pp. 1892–1908.
https://doi.org/10.1038/jid.2009.133

Del Rosso, J., Zeichner, J., Alexis, A., et al. (2016).
Understanding the epidermal barrier in healthy and compromised skin: Clinically relevant information for the dermatology practitioner: Proceedings of an expert panel roundtable meeting.
Journal of Clinical and Aesthetic Dermatology, 9(4 Suppl 1), pp. S2–S8.

Di Nardo, A., Sugino, K., Wertz, P., et al. (1996).
Sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS) induced irritant contact dermatitis: A correlation study between ceramides and in vivo parameters of irritation.
Contact Dermatitis, 35(2), pp. 86–91.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0536.1996.tb02296.x

Elias, P.M. (1983).
Epidermal lipids, barrier function, and desquamation.
Journal of Investigative Dermatology, 80(1 Suppl), pp. 44s–49s.
https://doi.org/10.1038/jid.1983.12

Elias, P.M. and Wakefield, J.S. (2014).
Mechanisms of abnormal lamellar body secretion and the dysfunctional skin barrier in patients with atopic dermatitis.
Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, 134(4), pp. 781–791.e1.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2014.05.048

Feingold, K.R. (2007).
The role of epidermal lipids in cutaneous permeability barrier homeostasis.
Journal of Lipid Research, 48(12), pp. 2531–2546.
https://doi.org/10.1194/jlr.R700013-JLR200

Fluhr, J.W. and Elias, P.M. (2002).
Stratum corneum pH: Formation and function of the ‘acid mantle’.
Exogenous Dermatology, 1(4), pp. 163–175.
https://doi.org/10.1159/000066140

Hachem, J.-P., Crumrine, D., Fluhr, J., et al. (2003).
pH directly regulates epidermal permeability barrier homeostasis, and stratum corneum integrity/cohesion.
Journal of Investigative Dermatology, 121(2), pp. 345–353.
https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1747.2003.12365.x

Hachem, J.-P., Roelandt, T., Schürer, N., et al. (2010).
Acute acidification of stratum corneum membrane domains using polyhydroxyl acids improves lipid processing and inhibits degradation of corneodesmosomes.
Journal of Investigative Dermatology, 130(2), pp. 500–510.
https://doi.org/10.1038/jid.2009.249

Madison, K.C. (2003).
Barrier function of the skin: “la raison d’être” of the epidermis.
Journal of Investigative Dermatology, 121(2), pp. 231–241.
https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1747.2003.12359.x

Nemes, Z. and Steinert, P.M. (1999).
Bricks and mortar of the epidermal barrier.
Experimental & Molecular Medicine, 31(1), pp. 5–19.
https://doi.org/10.1038/emm.1999.2

Proksch, E., Holleran, W.M., Menon, G.K., et al. (1993).
Barrier function regulates epidermal lipid and DNA synthesis.
British Journal of Dermatology, 128(5), pp. 473–482.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2133.1993.tb00222.x

Proksch, E., Brandner, J.M. and Jensen, J.-M. (2008).
The skin: An indispensable barrier.
Experimental Dermatology, 17(12), pp. 1063–1072.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0625.2008.00786.x

Tupker, R.A., Pinnagoda, J. and Nater, J.P. (1990).
The transient and cumulative effect of sodium lauryl sulphate on the epidermal barrier assessed by transepidermal water loss: Inter-individual variation.
Acta Dermato-Venereologica, 70(1), pp. 1–5.

Chapter 2

Boer, D.E.C., van Smeden, J., Al-Khakany, H., et al. (2020).
Skin of atopic dermatitis patients shows disturbed β-glucocerebrosidase and acid sphingomyelinase activity that relates to changes in stratum corneum lipid composition.
Biochimica et Biophysica Acta – Molecular and Cell Biology of Lipids, 1865(6), 158673.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbalip.2020.158673

Del Rosso, J.Q., Zeichner, J., Alexis, A., et al. (2016).
Understanding the epidermal barrier in healthy and compromised skin: Clinically relevant information for the dermatology practitioner.
Journal of Clinical and Aesthetic Dermatology, 9(4 Suppl 1), pp. S2–S8.

Elias, P.M. (1983).
Epidermal lipids, barrier function, and desquamation.
Journal of Investigative Dermatology, 80(Suppl), pp. 44s–49s.
https://doi.org/10.1038/jid.1983.12

Feingold, K.R. (2007).
The role of epidermal lipids in cutaneous permeability barrier homeostasis.
Journal of Lipid Research, 48(12), pp. 2531–2546.
https://doi.org/10.1194/jlr.R700013-JLR200

Feingold, K.R. (2009).
The outer frontier: the importance of lipid metabolism in the skin.
Journal of Lipid Research, 50(Suppl), pp. S417–S422.
https://doi.org/10.1194/jlr.R800039-JLR200

Groen, D., Gooris, G.S. and Bouwstra, J.A. (2009).
New insights into the stratum corneum lipid organization by small-angle X-ray diffraction.
Biophysical Journal, 97(8), pp. 2242–2249.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bpj.2009.07.040

Hachem, J.-P., Roelandt, T., Schürer, N., et al. (2010).
Acute Acidification of Stratum Corneum Membrane Domains Using Polyhydroxyl Acids Improves Lipid Processing and Inhibits Degradation of Corneodesmosomes.
Journal of Investigative Dermatology, 130(2), pp. 500–510.
https://doi.org/10.1038/jid.2009.249

Hamanaka, S., Hara, M., Nishio, H., et al. (2002).
Human epidermal glucosylceramides are major precursors of stratum corneum ceramides.
Journal of Investigative Dermatology, 119(2), pp. 416–423.
https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1747.2002.01836.x

Hennings, H., Michael, D., Cheng, C., et al. (1980).
Calcium regulation of growth and differentiation of mouse epidermal cells in culture.
Cell, 19(1), pp. 245–254.
https://doi.org/10.1016/0092-8674(80)90406-7

Hill, J.R., Paslin, D., and Wertz, P.W. (2006).
A new covalently bound ceramide from human stratum corneum –ω-hydroxyacylphytosphingosine.
International Journal of Cosmetic Science, 28(3), pp. 225–230.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-2494.2006.00324.x

Holleran, W.M., Ginns, E.I., Menon, G.K., et al. (1994).
Consequences of β-glucocerebrosidase deficiency in murine epidermis: abnormal stratum corneum structure and permeability barrier.
Journal of Clinical Investigation, 93(4), pp. 1756–1764.
https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI117160

Lee, S.H., Elias, P.M., Proksch, E., et al. (1992).
Calcium and potassium are important regulators of barrier homeostasis in murine epidermis.
Journal of Clinical Investigation, 89(2), pp. 530–538.
https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI115617

Leprince, C. and Simon, M. (2025).
Epidermal lamellar bodies, essential organelles for the skin barrier.
Frontiers in Cell and Developmental Biology, 13, 1597884.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fcell.2025.1597884

Mahanty, S. and Setty, S.R.G. (2021).
Epidermal lamellar body biogenesis: insight into the roles of Golgi and lysosomes.
Frontiers in Cell and Developmental Biology, 9, 701950.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fcell.2021.701950

Menon, G.K., Price, L.F., Bommannan, B., et al. (1994).
Selective obliteration of the epidermal calcium gradient leads to enhanced lamellar body secretion.
Journal of Investigative Dermatology, 102(5), pp. 789–795.
https://doi.org/10.1111/1523-1747.ep12377921

Menon, G.K. (2018).
An overview of epidermal lamellar bodies: Novel roles in biological adaptations and secondary barriers.
Journal of Dermatological Science, 92(1), pp. 10-17.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdermsci.2018.03.005

Nemes, Z. and Steinert, P.M. (1999).
Bricks and mortar of the epidermal barrier.
Experimental & Molecular Medicine, 31(1), pp. 5–19.
https://doi.org/10.1038/emm.1999.2

Norlén, L., Plasencia, I. and Bagatolli, L. (2008).
Stratum corneum lipid organization as observed by atomic force, confocal and two-photon excitation fluorescence microscopy.
International Journal of Cosmetic Science, 30(6), pp. 391-411.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2494.2008.00458.x

Thomas, A.C., Cullup, T., Norgett, E.E., et al. (2006).
ABCA12 is the major harlequin ichthyosis gene and encodes a putative lipid transporter in epidermal lamellar granules.
Journal of Investigative Dermatology, 126(11), pp. 2408-13.
https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.jid.5700455

van Smeden, J., Hoppel, L., van der Heijden, R., Hankemeier, T., Vreeken, R.J. and Bouwstra, J.A. (2011).
LC/MS analysis of stratum corneum lipids: ceramide profiling and discovery.
Journal of Lipid Research, 52(6), pp. 1211–1221.
https://doi.org/10.1194/jlr.M014456

van Smeden, J., Janssens, M., Gooris, G.S., et al. (2014).
The important role of stratum corneum lipids for the cutaneous barrier function.
Biochimica et Biophysica Acta – Molecular and Cell Biology of Lipids, 1841(3), pp. 295–313.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbalip.2013.11.006

Yagi, N., Kinoshita, M., Shibata, N., et al. (2020).
Microbeam X-ray diffraction study of lipid structure in stratum corneum of human skin.
PLOS ONE, 15(5), e0233131.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0233131

Yokose, U., Ishikawa, J., Morokuma, Y., et al. (2020).
The ceramide [NP]/[NS] ratio in the stratum corneum is a potential marker for skin properties and epidermal differentiation.
BMC Dermatology, 20(1), 6.
https://doi.org/10.1186/s12895-020-00102-1

Chapter 3

Behne, M.J., Meyer, J.W., Hanson, K.M., et al. (2002).
NHE1 regulates the stratum corneum permeability barrier homeostasis. Microenvironment acidification assessed with fluorescence lifetime imaging.
Journal of Biological Chemistry, 277(49), pp. 47399–47406.
https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.M204759200

Bíró, T., Tóth, B.I., Haskó, G., et al. (2009).
The endocannabinoid system of the skin in health and disease: novel perspectives and therapeutic opportunities.
Trends in Pharmacological Sciences, 30(8), pp. 411–420.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tips.2009.05.004

Borgoño, C.A., Michael, I.P., Komatsu, N., et al. (2007).
A potential role for multiple tissue kallikrein serine proteases in epidermal desquamation.
Journal of Biological Chemistry, 282(6), pp. 3640–3652.
https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.M607567200

Brattsand, M., Stefansson, K., Lundh, C., et al. (2005).
A proteolytic cascade of kallikreins in the stratum corneum.
Journal of Investigative Dermatology, 124(1), pp. 198–203.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0022-202X.2004.23547.x

Caubet, C., Jonca, N., Brattsand, M., et al. (2004).
Degradation of corneodesmosome proteins by two serine proteases of the kallikrein family, SCTE/KLK5/hK5 and SCCE/KLK7/hK7.
Journal of Investigative Dermatology, 122(5), pp. 1235–1244.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0022-202X.2004.22512.x

Chan, A. and Mauro, T. (2011).
Acidification in the epidermis and the role of secretory phospholipases.
Dermato-Endocrinology, 3(2), pp. 84–90.
https://doi.org/10.4161/derm.3.2.15140

Chavanas, S., Bodemer, C., Rochat, A., et al. (2000).
Mutations in SPINK5, encoding a serine protease inhibitor, cause Netherton syndrome.
Nature Genetics, 25(2), pp. 141–142.
https://doi.org/10.1038/75977

Choi, E.H., Man, M.Q., Xu, P., et al. (2007).
Stratum corneum acidification is impaired in moderately aged human and murine skin.
Journal of Investigative Dermatology, 127(12), pp. 2847–2856.
https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.jid.5700913

Deraison, C., Bonnart, C., Lopez, F., et al. (2007).
LEKTI fragments specifically inhibit KLK5, KLK7 and KLK14 and are released in a pH-dependent manner.
Molecular Biology of the Cell, 18(9), pp. 3607–3619.
https://doi.org/10.1091/mbc.e07-02-0124

Descargues, P., Deraison, C., Bonnart, C., et al. (2005).
Spink5-deficient mice exhibit a skin barrier defect due to unrestrained protease activity.
Nature Genetics, 37(1), pp. 56–65.
https://doi.org/10.1038/ng1493

Feingold, K.R. (2007).
The role of epidermal lipids in cutaneous permeability barrier homeostasis.
Journal of Lipid Research, 48(12), pp. 2531–2546.
https://doi.org/10.1194/jlr.R700013-JLR200

Fluhr, J.W. and Elias, P.M. (2002).
Stratum corneum pH: formation and function of the ‘acid mantle’.
Exogenous Dermatology, 1(4), pp. 163–175.
https://doi.org/10.1159/000066140

Fluhr, J.W., Darlenski, R. and Surber, C. (2008).
Glycerol and the skin: holistic approach to barrier function and hydration.
British Journal of Dermatology, 159(1), pp. 23–34.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2133.2008.08643.x

Gunathilake, R., Schurer, N.Y., Shoo, B.A., et al. (2009).
pH-regulated mechanisms account for pigment-type differences in epidermal barrier function.
Journal of Investigative Dermatology, 129(7), pp. 1719–29.
https://doi.org/10.1038/jid.2008.442

Hachem, J. P., Behne, M., Aronchik, I., et al. (2005).
Extracellular pH controls NHE1 expression in epidermis and keratinocytes: implications for barrier repair.
Journal of Investigative Dermatology, 125(4), pp. 790–797.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0022-202X.2005.23890.x

Hachem, J. P., Man, M.-Q., Crumrine, D., et al. (2005).
Sustained Serine Proteases Activity by Prolonged Increase in pH Leads to Degradation of Lipid Processing Enzymes and Profound Alterations of Barrier Function and Stratum Corneum Integrity
Journal of Investigative Dermatology, 125(3), pp. 510–520.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0022-202X.2005.23838.x

Hachem, J.P., Roelandt, T., Schürer, N., et al. (2010).
Acute Acidification of Stratum Corneum Membrane Domains Using Polyhydroxyl Acids Improves Lipid Processing and Inhibits Degradation of Corneodesmosomes.
Journal of Investigative Dermatology, 130(2), pp. 500–510.
https://doi.org/10.1038/jid.2009.249

Lambers, H., Piessens, S., Bloem, A., et al. (2006).
Natural skin surface pH is on average below 5, which is beneficial for its resident flora.
International Journal of Cosmetic Science, 28(5), pp. 359–370.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-2494.2006.00344.x

Levi, K., Baxter, J., Meldrum, H., et al. (2008).
Effect of corneodesmosome degradation on the intercellular delamination of human stratum corneum.
Journal of Investigative Dermatology, 128(9), pp. 2345–2347.
https://doi.org/10.1038/jid.2008.107

Man, M.Q., Lin, T.K., Santiago, J.L., et al. (2014).
Basis for enhanced barrier function of pigmented skin.
Journal of Investigative Dermatology, 134(9), pp. 2399–2407.
https://doi.org/10.1038/jid.2014.187

Mauro, T., Holleran, W.M., Grayson, S., et al. (1998).
Barrier recovery is impeded at neutral pH, independent of ionic effects: implications for extracellular lipid processing.
Archives of Dermatological Research, 290(4), pp. 215–222.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s004030050293

Palmer, C.N.A., Irvine, A.D., Terron-Kwiatkowski, A., et al. (2006).
Common loss-of-function variants of the epidermal barrier protein filaggrin are a major predisposing factor for atopic dermatitis.
Nature Genetics, 38(4), pp. 441–446.
https://doi.org/10.1038/ng1767

Proksch, E., Brandner, J.M. and Jensen, J. M. (2008).
The skin: an indispensable barrier.
Experimental Dermatology, 17(12), pp. 1063–1072.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0625.2008.00786.x

Rawlings, A.V. and Harding, C.R. (2004).
Moisturization and skin barrier function.
Dermatologic Therapy, 17(Suppl 1), pp. 43–48.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1396-0296.2004.04s1005.x

Schechter, N.M., Choi, E.J., Wang, Z.M., et al. (2005).
Inhibition of human kallikreins 5 and 7 by the serine protease inhibitor lympho-epithelial Kazal-type inhibitor (LEKTI).
Biological Chemistry, 386(11), pp. 1173–1179.
https://doi.org/10.1515/BC.2005.134

Schmid-Wendtner, M.-H. and Korting, H.C. (2006).
The pH of the skin surface and its impact on the barrier function.
Skin Pharmacology and Physiology, 19(6), pp. 296–302.
https://doi.org/10.1159/000094670

Ständer, S. and Steinhoff, M. (2002).
Pathophysiology of pruritus in atopic dermatitis: an overview.
Experimental Dermatology, 11(1), pp. 12–24.
https://doi.org/10.1034/j.1600-0625.2002.110102.x

Takagi, Y., Kriehuber, E., Imokawa, G., et al. (1999).
β-Glucocerebrosidase activity in mammalian stratum corneum.
Journal of Lipid Research, 40(5), pp. 861–869.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-2275(20)32121-0

Wu, K.S., Stefik, M.M., Ananthapadmanabhan, K.P., et al. (2006).
Graded delamination behavior of human stratum corneum.
Biomaterials, 27(34), pp. 5861–5870.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2006.08.008

Chapter 4

Bandier, J., Johansen, J.D., Carlsen, B.C., et al. (2014).
Skin pH, atopic dermatitis, and filaggrin mutations.
Dermatitis, 25(3), pp. 127–129.
https://doi.org/10.1097/DER.0000000000000045

Bouslimani, A., da Silva, R., Kosciolek, T., et al. (2019).
The impact of skin care products on skin chemistry and microbiome dynamics.
BMC Biology, 17, 47.
https://doi.org/10.1186/s12915-019-0660-6

Brauweiler, A.M., Bin, L., Kim, B.E., et al. (2013).
Filaggrin-dependent secretion of sphingomyelinase protects against Staphylococcus aureus α-toxin-induced keratinocyte death.
Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, 131(2), pp. 421–427.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2012.10.030

Cau, L., Williams, M.R., Butcher, A.M., et al. (2021).
Staphylococcus epidermidis protease EcpA can be a deleterious component of the skin microbiome in atopic dermatitis.
Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, 147(3), pp. 955–966.e16.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2020.06.024

Clausen, M.L., Edslev, S.M., Andersen, P.S., et al. (2017).

Staphylococcus aureus colonization in atopic eczema and its association with filaggrin gene mutations.
British Journal of Dermatology, 177(5), pp. 1394–1400.
https://doi.org/10.1111/bjd.15470

Costello, E.K., Lauber, C.L., Hamady, M., et al. (2009).
Bacterial community variation in human body habitats across space and time.
Science, 326(5960), pp. 1694–1697.
https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1177486

Drake, D.R., Brogden, K.A., Dawson, D.V., et al. (2008).
Thematic Review Series: Skin Lipids. Antimicrobial lipids at the skin surface.
Journal of Lipid Research, 49(1), pp. 4–11.
https://doi.org/10.1194/jlr.R700016-JLR200

Dürr, U.H.N., Sudheendra, U.S. and Ramamoorthy, A. (2006).
LL-37, the only human member of the cathelicidin family of antimicrobial peptides.
Biochimica et Biophysica Acta – Biomembranes, 1758(9), pp. 1408–1425.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbamem.2006.03.030

Findley, K., Oh, J., Yang, J., et al. (2013).
Topographic diversity of fungal and bacterial communities in human skin.
Nature, 498(7454), pp. 367–370.
https://doi.org/10.1038/nature12171

Gao, Z., Tseng, C.H., Pei, Z., et al. (2007).
Molecular analysis of human forearm superficial skin bacterial biota.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 104(8), pp. 2927–2932.
https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0607077104

Grice, E.A., Kong, H.H., Conlan, S., et al. (2009).
Topographical and temporal diversity of the human skin microbiome.
Science, 324(5931), pp. 1190–1192.
https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1171700

Grice, E.A. and Segre, J.A. (2011).
The skin microbiome.
Nature Reviews Microbiology, 9(4), pp. 244–253.
https://doi.org/10.1038/nrmicro2537

Howell, M.D., Kim, B.E., Gao, P., et al. (2009).
Cytokine modulation of atopic dermatitis filaggrin skin expression.
Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, 124(3 Suppl 2), pp. R7–R12.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2009.07.012

Kezic, S., O’Regan, G.M., Yau, N., et al. (2011).
Levels of filaggrin degradation products are influenced by both filaggrin genotype and atopic dermatitis severity.
Allergy, 66(7), pp. 934–940.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1398-9995.2010.02540.x

Nakatsuji, T., Chen, T.H., Narala, S., et al. (2017).
Antimicrobials from human skin commensal bacteria protect against Staphylococcus aureus and are deficient in atopic dermatitis.
Science Translational Medicine, 9(378), eaah4680.
https://doi.org/10.1126/scitranslmed.aah4680

Oh, J., Byrd, A.L., Park, M., et al. (2016).
Temporal stability of the human skin microbiome.
Cell, 165(4), pp. 854–866.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2016.04.008

Ong, P.Y., Ohtake, T., Brandt, C., et al. (2002).
Endogenous antimicrobial peptides and skin infections in atopic dermatitis.
New England Journal of Medicine, 347(15), pp. 1151–1160.
https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa021481

Williams, M.R., Costa, S.K., Zaramela, L.S., et al. (2019).
Quorum sensing between bacterial species on the skin protects against atopic dermatitis and skin inflammation.
Science Translational Medicine, 11(490), eaat8329.
https://doi.org/10.1126/scitranslmed.aat8329

Yamasaki, K., Di Nardo, A., Bardan, A., et al. (2007).
Increased serine protease activity and cathelicidin promotes skin inflammation in rosacea.
Nature Medicine, 13(8), pp. 975–980.
https://doi.org/10.1038/nm1616

Chapter 5

Bommannan, D., Potts, R.O. and Guy, R.H. (1991).
Examination of the effect of ethanol on human stratum corneum in vivo using infrared spectroscopy.
Journal of Controlled Release, 16(3), pp. 299–304.
https://doi.org/10.1016/0168-3659(91)90006-Y

De Paepe, K., Roseeuw, D. and Rogiers, V. (2002).
Repair of acetone- and sodium lauryl sulphate-damaged human skin barrier function using topically applied emulsions containing barrier lipids.
Journal of the European Academy of Dermatology and Venereology, 16(6), pp. 587–594.
https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1468-3083.2002.00527.x

Draelos, Z.D., Ertel, K.D. and Berge, C.A. (2006).
Facilitating facial retinization through barrier improvement.
Cutis, 78(4), pp. 275–281.
No DOI available.

Fluhr, J.W., Kao, J., Jain, M., et al. (2001).
Generation of free fatty acids from phospholipids regulates stratum corneum acidification and integrity.
Journal of Investigative Dermatology, 117(1), pp. 44–51.
https://doi.org/10.1046/j.0022-202x.2001.01399.x

Gabard, B., Eisner, P. and Treffel, P. (1996).
Barrier function of the skin in a repetitive irritation model and influence of 2 different treatments.
Skin Research and Technology, 2(2), pp. 78–82.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0846.1996.tb00063.x

Gehring, W. and Gloor, M. (2000).
Effect of topically applied dexpanthenol on epidermal barrier function and stratum corneum hydration.
Arzneimittel-Forschung / Drug Research, 50(7), pp. 659–663.
https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0031-1300268

Goyette, P., Chen, C.F., Wang, W., et al. (2000).
Characterization of retinoic acid receptor-deficient keratinocytes.
Journal of Biological Chemistry, 275(22), pp. 16497–16505.
https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.M909382199

Grether-Beck, S., Felsner, I., Brenden, H., et al. (2012).
Urea uptake enhances barrier function and antimicrobial defense in humans by regulating epidermal gene expression.
Journal of Investigative Dermatology, 132(6), pp. 1561-72.
https://doi.org/10.1038/jid.2012.42

Hachem, J.-P., Crumrine, D., Brown, B.E., et al. (2003).
pH directly regulates epidermal permeability barrier homeostasis and stratum corneum integrity/cohesion.
Journal of Investigative Dermatology, 121(2), pp. 345–353.
https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1747.2003.12365.x

Hachem, J.P., Roelandt, T., Schürer, N., et al. (2010).
Acute Acidification of Stratum Corneum Membrane Domains Using Polyhydroxyl Acids Improves Lipid Processing and Inhibits Degradation of Corneodesmosomes.
Journal of Investigative Dermatology, 130(2), pp. 500–510.
https://doi.org/10.1038/jid.2009.249

Horikoshi, T., Matsumoto, M., Usuki, A., et al. (2005).
Effects of glycolic acid on desquamation-regulating proteinases in human stratum corneum.
Experimental Dermatology, 14(1), pp. 34–40.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0906-6705.2005.00224.x

Kim, E., Kim, S., Nam, G.W., et al. (2009).
The alkaline pH-adapted skin barrier is disrupted severely by SLS-induced irritation.
International Journal of Cosmetic Science, 31(4), pp. 263–269.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2494.2009.00491.x

Kligman, A.M., Grove, G.L., Hirose, R., et al. (1986).
Topical tretinoin for photoaged skin.
Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology, 15(4 Pt 2), pp. 836–859.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0190-9622(86)70242-9

Kwak, S., Brief, E., Langlais, D., et al. (2012).
Ethanol perturbs lipid organization in models of stratum corneum membranes: An investigation combining differential scanning calorimetry, infrared and (2)H NMR spectroscopy.
Biochimica et Biophysica Acta – Biomembranes, 1818(5), pp. 1410–1419.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbamem.2012.02.013

Liu, A.Y., Destoumieux, D., Wong, A.V., et al. (2002).
Human β-Defensin-2 Production in Keratinocytes is Regulated by Interleukin-1, Bacteria, and the State of Differentiation.
Journal of Investigative Dermatology, 118(2), pp. 275–281.
https://doi.org/10.1046/j.0022-202X.2001.01651.x

Mastrofrancesco, A., Ottaviani, M., Aspite, N., et al. (2010).
Azelaic acid modulates the inflammatory response in normal human keratinocytes through PPARγ activation.
Experimental Dermatology, 19(9), pp. 813–820.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0625.2010.01107.x

Mohammed, D., Crowther, J.M., Matts, P.J., et al. (2013).
Influence of niacinamide containing formulations on the stratum corneum and barrier function in vivo.
International Journal of Pharmaceutics, 441(1-2), pp. 192–201.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijpharm.2012.11.043

Di Nardo, A., Sugino, K., Wertz, P., et al. (1996).
Sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS) induced irritant contact dermatitis: a correlation study between ceramides and in vivo parameters of irritation.
Contact Dermatitis, 35(2), pp. 86–91.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0536.1996.tb02296.x

Tanno, O., Ota, Y., Kitamura, N., et al. (2000).
Nicotinamide increases biosynthesis of ceramides as well as other stratum corneum lipids to improve the epidermal permeability barrier.
British Journal of Dermatology, 143(3), pp. 524–531.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2133.2000.03705.x

Törmä, H., Lindberg, M. and Berne, B. (2008).
Skin barrier disruption by sodium lauryl sulfate-exposure alters the expressions of involucrin, transglutaminase 1, profilaggrin, and kallikreins during the repair phase in human skin in vivo.
Journal of Investigative Dermatology, 128(5), pp. 1212–1219.
https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.jid.5701170

Tupker, R.A., Pinnagoda, J. and Nater, J.P. (1990).
The transient and cumulative effect of sodium lauryl sulphate on the human skin.
Acta Dermato-Venereologica, 70(1), pp. 1–5.
https://doi.org/10.2340/000155557015

Vollberg, T.M., Nervi, C., George, M.D., et al. (1992).
Retinoic acid receptors as regulators of human epidermal keratinocyte differentiation.
Molecular Endocrinology, 6(5), pp. 667–76.
https://doi.org/10.1210/mend.6.5.1318502

Chapter 6

Bautista, D.M., Jordt, S.E., Nikai, T., et al. (2006).
TRPA1 mediates the inflammatory actions of environmental irritants and proalgesic agents.
Cell, 124(6), pp. 1269–1282.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2006.02.023

Blank, I.H. (1952).
Factors which influence the water content of the stratum corneum.
Journal of Investigative Dermatology, 18(6), pp. 433–440.
https://doi.org/10.1038/jid.1952.52

Briot, A., Deraison, C., Lacroix, M., et al. (2009).
Kallikrein 5 induces atopic dermatitis-like lesions through PAR2-mediated thymic stromal lymphopoietin expression in Netherton syndrome.
Journal of Experimental Medicine, 206(5), pp. 1135–47.
https://doi.org/10.1084/jem.20082242

Caterina, M.J., Schumacher, M.A., Tominaga, M., et al. (1997).
The capsaicin receptor: a heat-activated ion channel in the pain pathway.
Nature, 389(6653), pp. 816–824.
https://doi.org/10.1038/39807

Cork, M.J., Danby, S.G., Vasilopoulos, Y., et al. (2009).
Epidermal barrier dysfunction in atopic dermatitis.
Journal of Investigative Dermatology, 129(8), pp. 1892–1908.
https://doi.org/10.1038/jid.2009.133

Hachem, J.P., Crumrine, D., Brown, B.E., et al. (2003).
pH directly regulates epidermal permeability barrier homeostasis and stratum corneum integrity/cohesion.
Journal of Investigative Dermatology, 121(2), pp. 345–353.
https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1747.2003.12365.x

Norlén, L. (2001).
Skin barrier formation: the membrane folding model.
Journal of Investigative Dermatology, 117(4), pp. 823–829.
https://doi.org/10.1046/j.0022-202x.2001.01445.x

Proksch, E., Brandner, J.M. and Jensen, J.M. (2008).
The skin: an indispensable barrier.
Experimental Dermatology, 17(12), pp. 1063–1072.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0625.2008.00786.x

Wilkin, J.K. (1981).
Flushing reactions: consequences and mechanisms.
Annals of Internal Medicine, 95(4), pp. 468–476.
https://doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-95-4-468

Chapter 7

Blank, I.H. (1952).
Factors which influence the water content of the stratum corneum.
Journal of Investigative Dermatology, 18(6), pp. 433–440.
https://doi.org/10.1038/jid.1952.52

Bouwstra, J.A., Gooris, G.S., Dubbelaar, F.E.R., et al. (2001).
Phase behavior of lipid mixtures based on human ceramides: coexistence of crystalline and liquid phases.
Journal of Lipid Research, 42(11), pp. 1759–1770.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-2275(20)31502-9

Elias, P.M. (2005).
Stratum corneum defensive functions: an integrated view.
Journal of Investigative Dermatology, 125(2), pp. 183–200.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0022-202X.2005.23668.x

Feingold, K.R. (2007).
The role of epidermal lipids in cutaneous permeability barrier homeostasis.
Journal of Lipid Research, 48(12), pp. 2531–2546.
https://doi.org/10.1194/jlr.R700013-JLR200

Hachem, J.P., Crumrine, D., Fluhr, J., et al. (2003).
pH directly regulates epidermal permeability barrier homeostasis and stratum corneum integrity/cohesion.
Journal of Investigative Dermatology, 121(2), pp. 345–353.
https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1747.2003.12365.x

Hara-Chikuma, M. and Verkman, A.S. (2008).
Roles of aquaporin-3 in the epidermis.
Journal of Investigative Dermatology, 128(9), pp. 2145–2151.
https://doi.org/10.1038/jid.2008.70

Holleran, W.M., Takagi, Y., Menon, G.K., et al. (1993).
Processing of epidermal glucosylceramides is required for optimal mammalian cutaneous permeability barrier function.
Journal of Clinical Investigation, 91(4), pp. 1656–1664.
https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI116374

Imokawa, G., Abe, A., Jin, K., et al. (1991).
Decreased level of ceramides in stratum corneum of atopic dermatitis: an etiologic factor in atopic dry skin?.
Journal of Investigative Dermatology, 96(4), pp. 523–526.
https://doi.org/10.1111/1523-1747.ep12470233

Norlén, L. (2001).
Skin barrier formation: the membrane folding model.
Journal of Investigative Dermatology, 117(4), pp. 823–829.
https://doi.org/10.1046/j.0022-202x.2001.01445.x

Rawlings, A.V. and Harding, C.R. (2004).
Moisturization and skin barrier function.
Dermatologic Therapy, 17(Suppl 1), pp. 43–48.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1396-0296.2004.04s1005.x

Rojek, A., Praetorius, J., Frøkiaer, J., et al. (2008).
A current view of the mammalian aquaglyceroporins.
Annual Review of Physiology, 70, pp. 301–327.
https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.physiol.70.113006.100452

Wertz, P.W., Madison, K.C. and Downing, D.T. (1989).
Covalently bound lipids of human stratum corneum.
Journal of Investigative Dermatology, 92(1), pp. 109–111.
https://doi.org/10.1111/1523-1747.ep13071317

Chapter 8

Ali, S.M. and Yosipovitch, G. (2013).
Skin pH: From basic science to basic skin care.
Acta Dermato-Venereologica, 93(3), pp. 261–267.
https://doi.org/10.2340/00015555-1531

Ahn, S.K., Hwang, S.M., Jiang, S.J., et al. (1999).
The changes of epidermal calcium gradient and transitional cells after prolonged occlusion following tape stripping in the murine epidermis.
Journal of Investigative Dermatology, 113(2), pp. 189–195.
https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1747.1999.00650.x

Behne, M.J., Sanchez, S., Barry, N.P., et al. (2011).
Major translocation of calcium upon epidermal barrier insult: imaging and quantification via FLIM/Fourier vector analysis.
Archives of Dermatological Research, 303(2), pp. 103–115.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00403-010-1113-9

Blaak, J. and Staib, P. (2018).
The relation of pH and skin cleansing.
Current Problems in Dermatology, 54, pp. 132–142.
https://doi.org/10.1159/000489527

Chaumont, A., Voisin, C., Sardella, A., et al. (2012).
Interactions between domestic water hardness, infant swimming and atopy in the development of childhood eczema.
Environmental Research, 116, pp. 52–57.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2012.04.013

Danby, S.G., Brown, K., Higgs-Bayliss, T., et al. (2018).
The effect of water hardness on surfactant deposition after washing and subsequent skin irritation in atopic dermatitis patients and healthy control subjects.
Journal of Investigative Dermatology, 138(1), pp. 68–77.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jid.2017.08.037

Elias, P.M. (2017).
The how, why and clinical importance of stratum corneum acidification.
Experimental Dermatology, 26(11), pp. 999–1003.
https://doi.org/10.1111/exd.13329

Engebretsen, K.A., Bager, P., Wohlfahrt, J., et al. (2017).
Prevalence of atopic dermatitis in infants by domestic water hardness and season of birth: cohort study.
Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, 139(5), pp. 1568–1574.e1.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaci.2016.11.021

Fürtjes, T., Kottner, J., Blume-Peytavi, U., et al. (2017).
Impact of a pH 5 oil-in-water emulsion on skin surface pH regeneration after alkalization.
Skin Pharmacology and Physiology, 30(3), pp. 141–147.
https://doi.org/10.1159/000475879

Hachem, J.P., Behne, M., Aronchik, I., et al. (2005).
Extracellular pH controls NHE1 expression in epidermis and keratinocytes: implications for barrier repair.
Journal of Investigative Dermatology, 125(4), pp. 790–797.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0022-202X.2005.23836.x

Hachem, J.P., Roelandt, T., Schürer, N., et al. (2010).
Acute Acidification of Stratum Corneum Membrane Domains Using Polyhydroxyl Acids Improves Lipid Processing and Inhibits Degradation of Corneodesmosomes.
Journal of Investigative Dermatology, 130(2), pp. 500–510.
https://doi.org/10.1038/jid.2009.249

Hara, M., Ma, T. and Verkman, A.S. (2002).
Selectively reduced glycerol in skin of aquaporin-3-deficient mice may account for impaired skin hydration, elasticity, and barrier recovery.
Journal of Biological Chemistry, 277(48), pp. 46616–46621.
https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.M209003200

Hara, M. and Verkman, A.S. (2003).
Glycerol replacement corrects defective skin hydration, elasticity, and barrier function in aquaporin-3-deficient mice.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 100(12), pp. 7360–7365.
https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1230416100

Hara-Chikuma, M. and Verkman, A.S. (2008).
Roles of aquaporin-3 in the epidermis.
Journal of Investigative Dermatology, 128(9), pp. 2145–2151.
https://doi.org/10.1038/jid.2008.70

Hawkins, S., Dasgupta, B.R. and Ananthapadmanabhan, K.P. (2021).
Role of pH in skin cleansing.
International Journal of Cosmetic Science, 43(4), pp. 474–483.
https://doi.org/10.1111/ics.12721

Jabbar-Lopez, Z.K., Craven, J., Logan, K., et al. (2020).
Longitudinal analysis of the effect of water hardness on atopic eczema: evidence for gene–environment interaction.
British Journal of Dermatology, 183(2), pp. 285–293.
https://doi.org/10.1111/bjd.18597

Jabbar-Lopez, Z.K., Ung, C.Y., Alexander, H., et al. (2021).
The effect of water hardness on atopic eczema and skin barrier function: a systematic review and meta-analysis.
Clinical & Experimental Allergy, 51(3), pp. 430–451.
https://doi.org/10.1111/cea.13797

Lee, S.H., Jeong, S.K. and Ahn, S.K. (2006).
An update of the defensive barrier function of skin.
Yonsei Medical Journal, 47(3), pp. 293–306.
https://doi.org/10.3349/ymj.2006.47.3.293

Lopez, D.J., Singh, A., Waidyatillake, N.T., et al. (2022).
The association between domestic hard water and eczema in adults from the UK Biobank cohort study.
British Journal of Dermatology, 187(5), pp. 704–712.
https://doi.org/10.1111/bjd.21771

Lukić, M., Pantelić, I. and Savić, S.D. (2021).
Towards optimal pH of the skin and topical formulations: from the current state of the art to tailored products.
Cosmetics, 8(3), 69.
https://doi.org/10.3390/cosmetics8030069

Schmid-Wendtner, M.H. and Korting, H.C. (2006).
The pH of the skin surface and its impact on the barrier function.
Skin Pharmacology and Physiology, 19(6), pp. 296–302.
https://doi.org/10.1159/000094670

Thomas, K.S., Koller, K., Dean, T., et al. (2011).
A multicentre randomised controlled trial and economic evaluation of ion-exchange water softeners for the treatment of eczema in children: the Softened Water Eczema Trial (SWET).
Health Technology Assessment, 15(8), pp. 1–156.
https://doi.org/10.3310/hta15080

Warren, R., Ertel, K.D., Bartolo, R.G., et al. (1996).
The influence of hard water (calcium) and surfactants on irritant contact dermatitis.
Contact Dermatitis, 35(6), pp. 337–343.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0536.1996.tb02414.x

Chapter 9

Biniek, K., Levi, K. and Dauskardt, R.H. (2012).
Solar UV radiation reduces the barrier function of human skin.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 109(42), pp. 17111–17116.
https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1206851109

Boncheva, M., Damien, F. and Normand, V. (2008).
Molecular organization of the lipid matrix in intact Stratum corneum using ATR-FTIR spectroscopy.
Biochimica et Biophysica Acta – Biomembranes, 1778(5), pp. 1344–1355.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbamem.2008.01.022

Cau, L., Pendaries, V., Lhuillier, E., et al. (2017).
Lowering relative humidity level increases epidermal protein deimination and drives human filaggrin breakdown.
Journal of Dermatological Science, 86(2), pp. 106–113.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdermsci.2017.02.280

Guéhenneux, S., Gardinier, S., Morizot, F., et al. (2012).
Skin surface hydration decreases rapidly during long distance flights.
Skin Research and Technology, 18(2), pp. 238–240.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0846.2011.00560.x

Jančálková, P., Kopečná, M., Kurka, M., et al. (2023).
Skin Barrier Fine Tuning through Low-Temperature Lipid Chain Transition.
Journal of Investigative Dermatology, 143(12), pp. 2427–2435.e3.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jid.2023.06.193

Jungersted, J.M., Høgh, J.K., Hellgren, L.I., et al. (2011).
The impact of ultraviolet therapy on stratum corneum ceramides and barrier function.
Photodermatology, Photoimmunology & Photomedicine, 27(6), pp. 331–333.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0781.2011.00618.x

Katagiri, C., Sato, J., Nomura, J., et al. (2003).
Changes in environmental humidity affect the water-holding property of the stratum corneum and its free amino acid content, and the expression of filaggrin in the epidermis of hairless mice.
Journal of Dermatological Science, 31(1), pp. 29–35.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0923-1811(02)00137-8

Kavanagh, G.M., Crosby, J.R. and Norval, M. (1995).
Urocanic acid isomers in human skin: analysis of site variation.
British Journal of Dermatology, 133(5), pp. 728–732.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2133.1995.tb02746.x

Kezic, S., Kemperman, P.M.J.H., Koster, E.S., et al. (2008).
Loss-of-function mutations in the filaggrin gene lead to reduced level of natural moisturizing factor in the stratum corneum.
Journal of Investigative Dermatology, 128(8), pp. 2117–2119.
https://doi.org/10.1038/jid.2008.29

Kim, B.E., Kim, J., Goleva, E., et al. (2021).
Particulate matter causes skin barrier dysfunction.
JCI Insight, 6(5), e145185.
https://doi.org/10.1172/jci.insight.145185

Krutmann, J., Schikowski, T., Morita, A., et al. (2014).
Pollution and skin: from epidemiological and mechanistic studies to clinical implications.
Journal of Dermatological Science, 76(3), pp. 163–168.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdermsci.2014.08.008

McLoone, P., Simics, E., Barton, A., et al. (2005).
An action spectrum for the production of cis-urocanic acid in human skin in vivo.
Journal of Investigative Dermatology, 124(5), pp. 1071–1074.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0022-202X.2005.23731.x

Petracca, B., Pirot, F., Bonté, F. and Valacchi, G. (2021).
Effects of ozone on stratum corneum lipid integrity and assembly.
Chemistry and Physics of Lipids, 239, 105121.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemphyslip.2021.105121

Pham, D.M., Boussouira, B., Moyal, D. and Nguyen, Q.L. (2015).
Oxidization of squalene, a human skin lipid: a new and reliable marker of environmental pollution studies.
International Journal of Cosmetic Science, 37(4), pp. 357–365.
https://doi.org/10.1111/ics.12208

Ryu, Y.S., Kang, K.A., Piao, M.J., et al. (2019).
Particulate matter-induced senescence of skin keratinocytes involves oxidative stress-dependent epigenetic modifications.
Experimental & Molecular Medicine, 51(9), 108.
https://doi.org/10.1038/s12276-019-0305-4

Thiele, J.J., Traber, M.G. and Packer, L. (1998).
Depletion of human stratum corneum vitamin E: an early and sensitive in vivo marker of UV induced photo-oxidation.
Journal of Investigative Dermatology, 110(5), pp. 756–761.
https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1747.1998.00169.x

Thiele, J.J., Schroeter, C., Hsieh, S.N., et al. (2001).
The antioxidant network of the stratum corneum.
Current Problems in Dermatology, 29, pp. 26–42.
https://doi.org/10.1159/000060651

Valacchi, G., Weber, S.U., Luu, C., et al. (2000).
Ozone potentiates vitamin E depletion by ultraviolet radiation in the murine stratum corneum.
FEBS Letters, 466(1), pp. 165–168.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0014-5793(99)01787-1

Valacchi, G., van der Vliet, A., Schock, B.C., et al. (2002).
Ozone exposure activates oxidative stress responses in murine skin.
Toxicology, 179(1–2), pp. 163–170.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0300-483X(02)00240-8

Valacchi, G., Pagnin, E., Corbacho, A.M., et al. (2004).
In vivo ozone exposure induces antioxidant/stress-related responses in murine lung and skin.
Free Radical Biology and Medicine, 36(5), pp. 673–681.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2003.12.005

Vogel, C.F.A., Van Winkle, L.S., Esser, C. and Haarmann-Stemmann, T. (2020).
The aryl hydrocarbon receptor as a target of environmental stressors – implications for pollution mediated stress and inflammatory responses.
Redox Biology, 34, 101530.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.redox.2020.101530

Vierkötter, A., Schikowski, T., Ranft, U., et al. (2010).
Airborne particle exposure and extrinsic skin aging.
Journal of Investigative Dermatology, 130(12), pp. 2719–2726.
https://doi.org/10.1038/jid.2010.204

Walterscheid, J.P., Nghiem, D.X., Kazimi, N., et al. (2006).
Cis-urocanic acid, a sunlight-induced immunosuppressive factor, activates immune suppression via the 5-HT2A receptor.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 103(46), pp. 17420–17425.
https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0603119103

Wisthaler, A. and Weschler, C.J. (2010).
Reactions of ozone with human skin lipids: sources of carbonyls, dicarbonyls, and hydroxycarbonyls in indoor air.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 107(15), pp. 6568–6575.
https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0904498106

Chapter 10

Altemus, M., Rao, B., Dhabhar, F.S., et al. (2001).
Stress-induced changes in skin barrier function in healthy women.
Journal of Investigative Dermatology, 117(2), pp. 309–317.
https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1747.2001.01373.x

Burr, G.O. and Burr, M.M. (1929).
A new deficiency disease produced by the rigid exclusion of fat from the diet.
Journal of Biological Chemistry, 82(2), pp. 345–367.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0021-9258(20)78281-5

Conti, A., Rogers, J., Verdejo, P., et al. (1996).
Seasonal influences on stratum corneum ceramide 1 fatty acids and the influence of topical essential fatty acids.
International Journal of Cosmetic Science, 18(1), pp. 1–12.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-2494.1996.tb00131.x

Denda, M., Tsuchiya, T. and Hosoi, J., et al. (1998).
Immobilization-induced and crowded environment-induced stress delay barrier recovery in murine skin.
British Journal of Dermatology, 138(5), pp. 780–785.
https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2133.1998.02213.x

Elias, P.M. and Brown, B.E. (1978).
The mammalian cutaneous permeability barrier: defective barrier function in essential fatty acid deficiency correlates with abnormal intercellular lipid deposition.
Laboratory Investigation, 39(6), pp. 574–583.
No DOI available.

Hirabayashi, T., Anjo, T., Kaneko, A., et al. (2017).
PNPLA1 has a crucial role in skin barrier function by directing acylceramide biosynthesis.
Nature Communications, 8, 14609.
https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms14609

Jacobi, U., Bartoll, J., Sterry, W. and Lademann, J. (2005).
Orally administered ethanol: transepidermal pathways and effects on the human skin barrier.
Archives of Dermatological Research, 296(7), pp. 332–338.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00403-004-0526-8

Kao, J.S., Fluhr, J.W., Man, M.Q., et al. (2003).
Short-term glucocorticoid treatment compromises both permeability barrier homeostasis and stratum corneum integrity: inhibition of epidermal lipid synthesis accounts for functional abnormalities.
Journal of Investigative Dermatology, 120(3), pp. 456–464.
https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1747.2003.12053.x

Mirdamadi, Y., Thielitz, A., Wiede, A., et al. (2015).
Insulin and insulin-like growth factor-1 can modulate the phosphoinositide-3-kinase/Akt/FoxO1 pathway in SZ95 sebocytes in vitro.
Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology, 415, pp. 32–44.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mce.2015.08.001

Opálka, L., Kováčik, A., Pullmannová, P., et al. (2020).
Effects of omega-O-acylceramide structures and concentrations in healthy and diseased skin barrier lipid membrane models.
Journal of Lipid Research, 61(2), pp. 219–228.
https://doi.org/10.1194/jlr.RA119000420

Robles, T.F. (2007).
Stress, social support, and delayed skin barrier recovery.
Psychosomatic Medicine, 69(8), pp. 807–815.
https://doi.org/10.1097/PSY.0b013e318157b12e

Smith, R.N., Mann, N.J., Braue, A., et al. (2007).
A low-glycemic-load diet improves symptoms in acne vulgaris patients: a randomized controlled trial.
American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 86(1), pp. 107–115.
https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/86.1.107

Smith, T.M., Gilliland, K., Clawson, G.A., et al. (2008).
IGF-1 induces SREBP-1 expression and lipogenesis in SEB-1 sebocytes via activation of the phosphoinositide 3-kinase/Akt pathway.
Journal of Investigative Dermatology, 128(5), pp. 1286–1293.
https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.jid.5701155

Uchida, Y. and Holleran, W.M. (2008).
Omega-O-acylceramide, a lipid essential for mammalian survival.
Journal of Dermatological Science, 51(2), pp. 77–87.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdermsci.2008.01.002

Yosipovitch, G., Xiong, G.L., Haus, E., et al. (1998).
Time-dependent variations of the skin barrier function in humans: transepidermal water loss, stratum corneum hydration, skin surface pH, and skin temperature.
Journal of Investigative Dermatology, 110(1), pp. 20–23.
https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1747.1998.00069.x

Chapter 11

AlJabr, A., AlAnazi, A.M.I. and AlEtebi, R.A.A. (2026).
Tranexamic Acid for Hyperpigmentation Disorders: A Literature Review on Efficacy and Safety in Melasma and PIH.
Journal of Cosmetic Dermatology, 25(2), e70692.
https://doi.org/10.1111/jocd.70692

Bai, G., Truong, T.M., Pathak, G.N., et al. (2024).
Clinical applications of exosomes in cosmetic dermatology.
Skin Health and Disease, 4(6), e348.
https://doi.org/10.1002/ski2.348

Bala, H.R., Lee, S., Wong, C., et al. (2018).
Oral Tranexamic Acid for the Treatment of Melasma: A Review.
Dermatologic Surgery, 44(6), pp. 814–825.
https://doi.org/10.1097/DSS.0000000000001518

Ebrahimi, B. and Naeini, F.F. (2014).
Topical tranexamic acid as a promising treatment for melasma.
Journal of Research in Medical Sciences, 19(8), pp. 753–757.

Ferrucci, S., Romagnuolo, M., Maronese, C.A., et al. (2021).
Skin barrier status during dupilumab treatment in patients with severe atopic dermatitis.
Therapeutic Advances in Chronic Disease, 12, 20406223211058332.
https://doi.org/10.1177/20406223211058332

Gelibter, S., Marostica, G., Mandelli, A., et al. (2022).
The impact of storage on extracellular vesicles: A systematic study.
Journal of Extracellular Vesicles, 11(2), e12162.
https://doi.org/10.1002/jev2.12162

Görgens, A., Corso, G., Hagey, D.W., et al. (2022).
Identification of storage conditions stabilizing extracellular vesicles preparations.
Journal of Extracellular Vesicles, 11(6), e12238.
https://doi.org/10.1002/jev2.12238

Gupta, J., Gill, H.S., Andrews, S.N. and Prausnitz, M.R. (2011).
Kinetics of skin resealing after insertion of microneedles in human subjects.
Journal of Controlled Release, 154(2), pp. 148–155.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jconrel.2011.05.021

Kim, M.S., Kim, Y.J., Shin, H.J., et al. (2015).
Tranexamic acid diminishes laser-induced melanogenesis.
Annals of Dermatology, 27(3), pp. 250–256.
https://doi.org/10.5021/ad.2015.27.3.250

Li, J., Liu, X., Zhang, Z., et al. (2025).
Efficacy and Tolerability of a Facial Serum Before and After Ablative Fractional Carbon Dioxide Laser: A Randomized Controlled Trial on Chinese Women.
Dermatology and Therapy, 15(12), pp. 3561–3575.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s13555-025-01531-x

Maeda, K. and Naganuma, M. (1998).
Topical trans-4-aminomethylcyclohexanecarboxylic acid prevents ultraviolet radiation-induced pigmentation.
Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology B: Biology, 47(2–3), pp. 136–141.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S1011-1344(98)00212-7

Maghfour, J., Mineroff, J., Ozog, D.M., et al. (2025).
Evidence-based consensus on the clinical application of photobiomodulation.
Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology, 93(2), pp. 429–443.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaad.2025.04.031

Mahmoud, R.H., Peterson, E., Badiavas, E.V., et al. (2025).
Exosomes: A comprehensive review for the practicing dermatologist.
Journal of Clinical and Aesthetic Dermatology, 18(4), pp. 33–40.

Montero-Vilchez, T., Rodriguez-Pozo, J.-A., Diaz-Calvillo, P., et al. (2022).
Dupilumab Improves Skin Barrier Function in Adults with Atopic Dermatitis: A Prospective Observational Study.
Journal of Clinical Medicine, 11(12), 3341.
https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm11123341

Mortazavi, S.M., Moghimi, H. and Maibach, H.I. (2022).
Skin permeability, a dismissed necessity for anti-wrinkle peptide performance.
International Journal of Cosmetic Science, 44(2), pp. 232–248.
https://doi.org/10.1111/ics.12770

Myles, I.A., Earland, N.J., Anderson, E.D., et al. (2018).
First-in-human topical microbiome transplantation with Roseomonas mucosa for atopic dermatitis.
JCI Insight, 3(9), e120608.
https://doi.org/10.1172/jci.insight.120608

Nakanishi, S., Kumamoto, J. and Denda, M. (2018).
Tranexamic acid blocks the thrombin-mediated delay of epidermal permeability barrier recovery induced by the cedar pollen allergen, Cry j1.
Scientific Reports, 8(1), 15610.
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-33898-7

Nakatsuji, T., Chen, T.H., Narala, S., et al. (2017).
Antimicrobials from human skin commensal bacteria protect against Staphylococcus aureus and are deficient in atopic dermatitis.
Science Translational Medicine, 9(378), eaah4680.
https://doi.org/10.1126/scitranslmed.aah4680

Ngoc, L.T.N., Moon, J.Y. and Lee, Y.C. (2023).
Utilization of light-emitting diodes for skin therapy: systematic review and meta-analysis.
Photodermatology, Photoimmunology & Photomedicine, 39(4), pp. 303–317.
https://doi.org/10.1111/phpp.12841

Oh, B.H., Hwang, Y.J., Lee, Y.W., et al. (2011).
Skin characteristics after fractional photothermolysis.
Annals of Dermatology, 23(4), pp. 448–454.
https://doi.org/10.5021/ad.2011.23.4.448

Robinson, L.R., Fitzgerald, N.C., Doughty, D.G., et al. (2005).
Topical palmitoyl pentapeptide provides improvement in photoaged human facial skin.
International Journal of Cosmetic Science, 27(3), pp. 155–160.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-2494.2005.00261.x

Théry, C., Witwer, K.W., Aikawa, E., et al. (2018).
Minimal information for studies of extracellular vesicles 2018 (MISEV2018): a position statement of the International Society for Extracellular Vesicles.
Journal of Extracellular Vesicles, 7(1), 1535750.
https://doi.org/10.1080/20013078.2018.1535750

Wang, H., Yang, F., Wang, H., et al. (2024).
Effect of CO2 fractional laser combined with recombinant human epidermal growth factor gel on skin barrier.
Medicine (Baltimore), 103(11), e37329.
https://doi.org/10.1097/MD.0000000000037329

Welsh, J.A., Goberdhan, D.C.I., O’Driscoll, L., et al. (2024).
Minimal information for studies of extracellular vesicles (MISEV2023): From basic to advanced approaches.
Journal of Extracellular Vesicles, 13(2), e12404.
https://doi.org/10.1002/jev2.12404

Woo, Y.R. and Kim, H.J. (2024).
Interaction between the microbiota and the skin barrier in aging skin: a comprehensive review.
Frontiers in Physiology, 15, 1322205.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2024.1322205

Wunsch, A. and Matuschka, K. (2014).
A controlled trial to determine the efficacy of red and near-infrared light treatment on skin structure.
Photomedicine and Laser Surgery, 32(2), pp. 93–100.
https://doi.org/10.1089/pho.2013.3616

Yuan, C., Wang, X.M., Yang, L.J., et al. (2014).
Tranexamic acid accelerates skin barrier recovery and upregulates occludin in damaged skin.
International Journal of Dermatology, 53(8), pp. 959–965.
https://doi.org/10.1111/ijd.12099

References

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